2013年8月8日 星期四

Overview of innovations in organization for learning 學習型組織的創新

Overview of innovations in organization for learning


學習型組織的創新

Abstract

Five approaches to organization for learning are reviewed: student grouping practices, nongrading, individualizing instruction, departmentalization in the elementary school, and cooperative teaching. The review relates these approaches to the accomplishment of eight basic instructional aims in the cognitive and affective areas. The critical review of each type of organizational plan considers problems of design, implementation, and evaluation. The general conclusion reached is that, while several of the approaches hold considerable promise for improving instruction, there usually are serious shortcomings in program design and implementation that prevent determining their potential contributions.

檢討五種學習型組織的途徑:1.學生分組的做法,2.混齡( nongrading ),3.個別化教學,4 在小學的部門化,5.合作教學。

審查涉及這些方法的八個基本的認知和情感領域的教學目標的實現。

每種類型的組織計劃的嚴格審查,考慮問題的設計,實施和評估。

一般結論認為,雖然一些方法保持相當大的承諾,改善教學,在方案設計和實施,防止確定其潛在的功績通常有嚴重的缺點。

Nongraded Schools - Brief Definition, Development of Graded Education, Search for Other Models, Research Findings 分級教育的發展

Nongraded Schools - Brief Definition, Development of Graded Education, Search for Other Models, Research Findings This entry will seek to identify and clarify the opposite of graded schools, for which the term nongraded schools is used. Although there are secondary schools that also seek to develop nongraded structures, the primary beneficiaries of the arrangement are children at the elementary school level.

混齡學校 - 簡短定義,分級教學的發展,搜尋其他模型,研究發現,此項目將尋求確定和澄清分級學校的對立面,用於術語非分級( nongraded )學校。雖然有中學,也尋求發展非分級( nongraded )結構,安排的主要受益者是孩子在小學水平。

Brief Definition

簡要定義


Briefly, nongradedness is defined in terms of respect for, and optimism about, individual differences. It calls for the provision of a pleasurable, challenging, and rewarding learning atmosphere where there are maximum opportunities for productive interaction between the learners. Within a nongraded setting the curriculum is both integrated and flexible. Similarly the timetable for the academic progress of each unique child is flexible. The learning of facts, although important, is recognized as subordinate to the mastery of concepts and methods of inquiry. The assessment of students is holistic and individualized, and evaluation is continuous, comprehensive, and diagnostic. The entire program within the nongraded setting, especially if there is a team of teachers involved, is more under the control of the teacher(s) than is the case in grade-structured situations. Research and experience generally support the conclusion that pupils in nongraded settings work harder, albeit more comfortably, and achieve more and better results than graded students do. There is also rather strong research evidence that children in nongraded settings enjoy better physical and emotional health.

簡言之,混齡教學( non-gradedness )被定義在尊重,持樂觀態度,個體差異。

 它要求提供一個愉快,挑戰和獎勵的學習氛圍,那裡有最大的機會,學習者之間富有成效的互動。

在分選差的設置,課程是集成和靈活。

同樣,每個唯一的孩子的學業進展的時間表是靈活的。學習的事實,但重要的是,被確認為下屬掌握查詢的概念和方法。

評估學生全面和個性化的,連續的,全面的,診斷和評估。

整個程序內選差設置,尤其是如果有一個涉及教師隊伍,更多的是在老師的控制下(次)的情況相比,在等級結構的情況下。

 研究和經驗,一般在選差的設置,學生的工作更難了,雖然更舒適,並達到比分級學生做更多和更好的結果支持這樣的結論。

也有相當強的研究證據表明,選差的設置兒童享受更好的身體和情感健康。


Read more: Nongraded Schools - Brief Definition, Development of Graded Education, Search for Other Models, Research Findings - Elementary, Nongradedness, Teachers, and Teacher - StateUniversity.com http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2297/Nongraded-Schools.html#ixzz2bMXu2E5P




Development of Graded Education

分級教育的發展



Graded education was introduced and developed during the years 1848 to 1870, beginning with the Quincy Grammar School in Boston. The Quincy school came into being largely to provide a manageable school organization at a time when schooling in expanding cities became a much larger enterprise than had existed in the familiar one-room school serving pupils of multiple ages. It also grew out of assumptions that undergirded and made possible efforts toward universal education. Because little was known or believed in those years about stages of human development and the unevenness of readiness within age groups, the assumption was made that students may logically be grouped together by age, or actually within a twelve-month span, and taught a specific and common body of skills and subject matter.
Well into the twentieth century, the patterns of fairly rigid gradedness, with attendant nonpromotion/promotion practices, launched at the Quincy school became, in effect, universal. All the same, at that point in social history the system was in fact a significant and creative advance, appropriate to the assumptions and perceptions involved. The teachers were usually quite uneducated and insufficiently trained, and therefore there evolved the system of requiring them to master only a one-year segment of the educational program. In this way, a form of primitive specialization occurred. There was also a pattern of very strict supervision by the employers.


引入了分級教學和開發期間年1848到1870年,開始在波士頓昆西文法學校。

昆西學校應運而生,主要是提供一個可管理的學校組織的時候在擴大城市成為一個更大的企業比存在多個年齡段的學生提供服務,在熟悉的一間教室的學校教育。

 它還增長假設undergirded走向普及教育,並提出可能的努力。

 因為很少有人知道或相信在這些年關於人類發展和不均勻的年齡組內準備階段,假設學生可以在邏輯上被組合在一起,按年齡,或實際上在12個月中,教一個特定和常見的身體技能和題材。


那麼進入20世紀,相當的剛性gradedness,伴隨nonpromotion/推廣的做法,推出昆西學校的模式,實際上成為普遍的。


一樣,在這一點上在社會歷史中的系統實際上是一個重大和創造性的推進,適當的假設和看法。

教師們通常是相當沒有受過教育和訓練不足,因此有進化的系統,要求他們只掌握一個為期一年的教育程序段。

 以這種方式,原始專業化的一種形式發生。

由用人單位也有一個非常嚴格的監督格局。

Read more: Nongraded Schools - Brief Definition, Development of Graded Education, Search for Other Models, Research Findings - Elementary, Nongradedness, Teachers, and Teacher - StateUniversity.com http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2297/Nongraded-Schools.html#ixzz2bO7kiql4



Search for Other Models

Before long, the disadvantages of the graded system's rigidity had become apparent, and by the end of the nineteenth century there were various efforts to create different schooling models and achieve greater flexibility. These efforts continued well into the twentieth century, handicapped to some extent by the publishing industry's success in producing agegraded textbook series that made it easier for teachers to manage their work. In the same period, socalled normal schools and later, colleges, produced teachers whose preparation assumed that each would work alone in a self-contained classroom and, except for those in smaller multigraded schools, with materials deemed suitable for one age-group of children.
Along with the search for more appropriate, flexible, and child-oriented arrangements to replace the entrenched gradedness, several influential and helpful developments occurred. Progressive education was very likely the most dramatic example. Also influential were some well-known examples of nongradedness in Europe, which in the 1920s caused many venturesome American teachers, especially from cities in Wisconsin and New York, to visit pilot programs that were located in Jena, Germany, and in several cities in Holland. Some of these programs continue to flourish in the early twenty-first century.

沒過多久,分級制度的剛性的弊端已經顯現,由十九世紀的結束有各種各樣的努力創造不同的教育模式,實現更大的靈活性。

這些努力一直持續到二十世紀,出版業的成功生產年齡分級( age-graded )系列教材,使教師更容易管理他們的工作在一定程度上傷殘。

在同一時期,所謂正常的學校後,大學院校,教師準備假設每個單獨工作在自足教室,除了為那些在較小混齡 ( multigraded )學校,教材被認為是合適的一個年齡組的兒童。

隨著搜索到取代根深蒂固的分級制( gradedness ),更合適的,靈活的,以兒童為本安排,發生了幾個有影響力的和有益的發展。

進步主義教育很可能是最生動的例子。也有影響的混齡教學( non-gradedness )歐洲一些著名的例子,在20世紀20年代造成了許多冒險的美國教師,尤其是在威斯康星州和紐約城市,位於德國耶拿,訪問控制的方案,並在幾個城市在荷蘭。其中一些方案在早期的二十一世紀繼續發揚光大。


Over the years the label "nongraded" proved to be slightly confusing and insufficiently informative, and scholars and administrators found that labels such as "continuous progress" were more descriptive. Beginning with milestone research and related articles by Walter Rehwoldt and Warren W. Hamilton in 1956 and 1957, the discussion of nongradedness increasingly involved reference to interage or intergrade grouping, for which the term multiage was soon frequently substituted. Also in the 1950s, the nation's first experience with formally organized team teaching, and with a related notion, the use of teacher aides/helpers, redefined the organizational framework within which, it was increasingly argued with the support of research evidence, a demonstrably preferable setting could be provided not only for the pupils but also for the collaborating adults who worked with them.
Some elementary schools chose to organize classes in a pattern similar to departmentalization, with each teacher responsible for one content area, such as math or social studies; but it was not until 1957 when there was a sudden burst of interest, nurtured by seventeen universities being funded by Ford Foundation grants to support teacher-teaming and related arrangements, that the virtues of self-containment came to be seriously questioned. Some of the funded model projects, which soon sparked nationwide interest, called for aggregating multiage pupil groups (e.g., children six to seven and eight years of age) to be taught by teams of four to eight collaborating teachers. This development led to a kind of architectural revolution, because standard-size classrooms could no longer accommodate various-sized pupil aggregations. It is of interest to note that, as of the beginning of the twenty-first century, it seems probable that a great many elementary schools continue to provide at least some space flexibility to accommodate teaming arrangements.

多年來“非分級( nongraded )”的標籤被證明是略顯混亂,不夠翔實,學者和管理員發現,更具描述性的標籤,如“不斷進步”。

具有里程碑式的研究及相關文章由Walter Rehwoldt的沃倫·漢密爾頓在1956年和1957年開始,越來越多地參與討論混齡教學( non-gradedness )參考跨年齡( inter-age )或跨年級( intergrade )分組,長期multiage很快就被頻繁地取代。

此外,在20世紀50年代,國家的第一個正式組織團隊的教學經驗,並與一個相關的概念,利用老師的助手/傭工,重新定義該組織架構內,它被越來越多地爭論與研究證據的支持,一個明確的最好不僅為學生,也為合作和他們一起工作的成年人誰可以提供設置。


一些小學選擇成班在類似部門化的模式,每個老師負責一個內容區域,如數學或社會研究的,但它不是直到1957年,當時有一個突然爆發的興趣,由17所大學是培育由福特基金會贈款資助,以支持教師合作及相關安排,自我封閉的美德來受到嚴重的質疑。

有些資助的示範項目,很快引發了全國范圍內的興趣,稱為聚集混齡( multiage )的學生被教導隊四到八個合作教師小組(如兒童六,七,八歲)。

這種發展導致了一種建築的革命,因為標準大小的教室再也容納各種大小的的學生聚合。感興趣的注意的是,二十一世紀的開始,它似乎有可能到還有許多小學繼續提供至少一些空間的靈活性,以適應合作安排。


Read more: Nongraded Schools - Brief Definition, Development of Graded Education, Search for Other Models, Research Findings - Elementary, Nongradedness, Teachers, and Teacher - StateUniversity.com http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2297/Nongraded-Schools.html#ixzz2bOGVq0mZ



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Overview of innovations in organization for learning
Glen Heathers - 1972 - Interchange
The Effectiveness of the Nongraded School
William P McLoughlin - 1972 - International Review of Education
Organizational Character of Education: Staff Utilization and ...
Robert H Anderson - 1964 - Review of Educational Research

The Non-Graded Elementary School. Revised Edition. Reissued with an New Introduction.

The Non-Graded Elementary School. Revised Edition. Reissued with an New Introduction.

Goodlad, John I.; Anderson, Robert H.
1987
This book discusses the anachronistic nature of the graded school structure and the practices that accompany it and proposes the alternative of a nongraded structure. The incompatibility of the graded system with present insights into child development are the the emphasis of the first chapter. Chapter 2 examines the effectiveness of nonpromotion in reducing the discrepancy between grade standards and the realities of pupil attainment in conventional elementary schools. The third chapter refers to the emergence of the nongraded school, citing the need for facilitation of the progress of each pupil. Chapter 4 looks at the nongraded school in operation, with examples from communities and references to administrative considerations. Chapter 5 discusses developing theories of curriculum planning in reference to nongraded schools, focusing on classroom practices. The sixth chapter examines the reporting of pupil progress to the parents. Chapter 7 discusses the mental health of the child in the classroom setting. Establishment of the nongraded school and factors contributing to its successful development are the subjects of the eighth chapter. The final chapter focuses on the elementary school of the past and suggests improvements for the school of tomorrow. A comprehensive bibliography and index are included. (WTH)

Achievement effects of the nongraded elementary school: A best evidence synthesis

Achievement effects of the nongraded elementary school: A best evidence synthesis



A nongraded elementary program is one in which children are flexibly grouped according to performance level, not age, and proceed through the elementary school at their own rates. Popular in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, the nongraded plan is returning today. This article reviews research on the achievement effects of nongraded organization. Results indicated consistent positive achievement effects of simple forms of nongrading generally developed early: cross-grade grouping for one subject (median ES = + .46) and cross-grade grouping for many subjects (median ES = + .34). Forms of nongrading making extensive use of individualization were less consistently successful (median ES = + .02). Studies of Individually Guided Education (IGE), which used nongrading and individualization, also produced inconsistent effects (median ES = + .11). The article concludes that nongraded organization can have a positive impact on student achievement if cross-age grouping is used to allow teachers to provide more direct instruction to students but not if it is used as a framework for individualized instruction.



Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implications for practice in the 21st century

 Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implications for practice in the 21st century





Abstract. Retaining a child at grade level has become increasingly popular, consistent with the emphasis on accountability and standards in elementary education.
This article provides a comprehensive review of the research examining the academic and socioemotional outcomes associated with grade retention. Following a
brief historical overview of previously published literature reviews, a summary of
studies published between 1990 and 1999 is provided. A systematic review and
meta-analysis of 20 recent studies includes: outcome variables (i.e., achievement
and socioemotional adjustment), age or grade of retained population, matched or
controlled for variables in analyses with comparison groups, and the overall conclusion regarding the efficacy of grade retention. Results of recent studies and this
meta-analysis are consistent with past literature reviews from the 1970s and 1980s.
In addition to a summary of the results, the discussion addresses the disparity
between educational practice and converging research regarding grade retention
and suggests directions for practice. This review encourages researchers, educational professionals, and legislators to abandon the debate regarding social promotion and grade retention in favor of a more productive course of action in the new
millennium.

On the merits of multiage classrooms

On the merits of multiage classrooms


Reflection on the quality of learning environments is
a hallmark of the educational professional. Those professionals who work in small schools often wonder about
the costs and benefits of the multiage and multigrade
classrooms with which they are more familiar than their
colleagues in larger schools. This interest is currently
shared by the increasing number ofteachers in mediumsized schools who find themselves teaching split grades.
Proposals to close small schools often act as a catalyst
for debate on this issue, with the intuition of parents and
teachers frequently pitted against the efficiency rationale
of district administrators. Such debates usually end with
the execution or reprieve of the school in question, but
with the educational issue unresolved.
In this paper, I shall attempt to summarize evidence
that bears on the question of the merits of multiage
classrooms. This includes not only the findings of experimental research, but also relevant evidence from
ethology, anthropology, and history. The weight ofthis
evidence strongly suggeststhat multiage classrooms have
many benefits to children which cannot be as fully realized in age-segregated classrooms.

Classroom time and achievement in mixed age classes

Classroom time and achievement in mixed age classes




國小階段英語分組教學與學習成就、學習興趣之相關研究

國小階段英語分組教學與學習成就、學習興趣之相關研究

本研究採不等組前、後測準實驗設計,以獨立樣本、相依樣本t 考驗比較學習成就、學習興趣在常態編班與分組教學的差異,以積差相關分析學習成就與學習興趣的關係,實驗教學後並訪談實驗組的學生、家長、學校的英語老師和擔任此次分組教學之教師,對國小階段英語分組教學的看法。本研究之對象為雲林縣某立案補習班國小三到六年級共四十五位學生,分A1、A2、A3 三個班級,敎學分二個階段,第一階段全體學生皆採常態班教學,進行第一至四單元的教學後施以各單元學習成就測驗及學習興趣前測。第二階段則隨機選取一個班級十五人為對照組,仍繼續採常態編班進行第五至八單元的教學。實驗組則為其他兩班三十位學生,依其前四單元的學習成就之平均數分為高成就組與低成就組,分別有十六及十四人,進行後四單元之分組教學。教學後施以後四個單元學習成就測驗與學習興趣後測。本研究結果如下:ㄧ、實驗組學生之學習成就優於常態編班學生的學習成就。二、實驗組學生之學習興趣優於常態編班學生的學習興趣。三、常態編班教學下,學生之學習成就與學習興趣呈正相關。四、分組教學下,學生之學習成就與學習興趣無相關。五、高成就組學生因上課較緊張有壓力,低成就組學生因擔心課後的補救教學,而降低其對英語本身的興趣,但皆對英語的學習較主動,也對英語學習較為投入。六、目前國小英語教學面對的困境,除了班級學生英語能力落差大之外,還缺乏聽、說的英語環境和學校英語授課節數不足等問題。本研究建議未來研究可探討國小英語授課時間與課程設計、補救教學的策略與模式、具英語教學能力之級任教師的培育、國小英語能力分班教學的法源依據、英語師資策略聯盟、彈性混齡能力分班教學等議題。

Cognitive and Noncognitive Effects of Multigrade and Multi-Age Classes: A Best-Evidence Synthesis

Cognitive and Noncognitive Effects of Multigrade and Multi-Age Classes: A Best-Evidence Synthesis


多級和多年齡類的認知和非認知的影響:一個最好的證據合成

  1. Simon Veenman
  1. University of Nijmegen

Abstract

Multigrade and multi-age classrooms, in which students from two or more grades are taught by one teacher at the same time, represent a significant phenomenon in our schools. This article reviews the best evidence concerning the cognitive and noncognitive effects of the multigrade classroom, which is an administrative device used to cope with declining student enrollment or uneven class sizes, and the multi-age classroom, in which children of different ages are grouped together for educational and pedagogical benefits, in elementary schools. Studies in which the cognitive or achievement effects of multigrade and single-grade classes were compared revealed no consistent differences between these two types of classroom organization (median ES = .00). Studies of the noncognitive effects of multigrade and single-grade classes also produced no consistent differences (median ES = +.10). Studies in which the cognitive or achievement effects of multi-age and single-age classes were compared indicated no differences between these two types of grouping (median ES = –.03). And, finally, studies of the noncognitive effects of multi-age and single-age classes produced inconsistent effects (median ES = +.15). It is concluded that there is no empirical evidence for the assumption that student learning may suffer in multigrade and multi-age classrooms.



Multi-Age Classes and High Ability Students 混齡編班與高成就學生

Multi-Age Classes and High Ability Students



  1. Linley Lloyd
  1. University of New England

Abstract

This article reviews research on multi-age classroom organization as an option for high ability students. Studies of both cognitive and affective factors in multi-age contexts have consistently shown positive, sometimes significant, effect sizes. Studies of different types of ability grouping have shown that arrangements most likely to have positive and significant results are those where the curriculum is differentiated. Teachers of multi-age classes may be more likely to see their students as diverse than as similar and to provide developmentally appropriate (that is, differentiated) curricula. Multi-age classes are discussed as an alternative to self-contained classes and pullout programs for high ability children.

Student participation and instructor gender in the mixed-age college classroom

Student participation and instructor gender in the mixed-age college classroom


在混齡的大學課堂學生參與和導師性別


合作學習的理論基礎

合作學習的理論基礎


張杏如
國立台東大學課程與教育研究所       
壹、前言
合作學習從1970年起被廣為提倡(于富雲,2001),是一種極有效的教學方式。依據社會建構論,很多學者將合作學習視為一種讓學生透過分組、小組成員互動的過程中,達成共同目標的學習方法。Johnson兄弟曾在其合作學習中心的網站上提到,他們至今仍很難將合作學習完整且明確的定義出來(王岱伊,2001)。由此我們可以瞭解,合作學習內涵的複雜性及多面性。
1970年之後,很多學者針對合作學習的不同理論為基礎,發展出多種小組合作學習策略,在國外不下八十種(周立勳,1994)。學習策略是固定的,但教學現場卻常受學生個人特質、班級氣氛、學習材料、教師特質、學習時間而影響,老師必須機動性的調整教學方式及策略,以確保學生達成有意義的學習。
以下列出合作學習的理論基礎,是每一個教師在使用合作學儀策略前應先進行瞭解的。教師藉由瞭解合作學習的理論基礎,才能理解合作學習策略中,每一個步驟對學生產生的影響及意義;也才能將教學策略做適當調整,設計出一套為目前學習者量身打造的合作學習策略,讓學生學習更有效果,也能有效減少合作學習時產生的負面效應。


「分齡編班」與「混齡編班」 Mixed-age students in classes

「分齡編班」與「混齡編班




在教育的專業範疇中,「分齡編班」與「混齡編班」是二種典型的編班方式,各有其優缺點;「分齡編班」依孩子的年齡編班,相近年齡身體與認知發展的孩子在一起學習,在教學設計與教學目標的達成上可以比較容易而有效率。「混齡編班」則將不同年齡的孩子編成一班可以讓孩子有較多社會性的互動機會,反映真實社會的年齡分布,同時發揮觀察學習的效果,但難免影響教學與活動有效率的進行。